We've spoken about the role of the Dominicans in the transformation of education and their close association with schools of learning and the universities. This story of the rise of the universities has many aspects to it. The radical demographic changes in Europe in the period from 1000 to 1300. Changes in economic structures. The growth of government and urbanization. Merchants required enhanced literacy. But the Papal reforms that we spoke about also prove to be a motor of change. The establishment of bureaucracies of legal and bureaucratic systems necessitated more and more people who were able to work in Latin and to write. The traditional monastic schools were not able to deal with these changes in society, and the needs of the economy and government. Then this would lead, ultimately, to the rise of the universities, and new forms of theological, legal, medical learning. The monasteries had been the center of education from the 5th to the 11th century. And study, as we recall, was integral to the benedictine rule. The root of education, which prepared men for the monastic life, was Latin. Education was for the benefit of the soul, for entry into the contemplate of life, for entry into the monastic ideal. The changes started to emerge in 12th century. Many of the monastic houses resisted those changes. Education for more secular purposes arose. And schools were established in the cities. One of the voices that spoke against this development was none other than Bernard of Clairvaux, who was hostile to these new institutions of learning. The emergence of scholasticism was in the urban schools, where men were educated for the service of the Church, and often for high office in the Church. So no longer simply for monastic life, but for life of the Church, in its hierarchical structure. Scholasticism, as we will have the opportunity to explore, was the effort to understand faith by the strict application of reason. One of the major figures to emerge was Anselm of Bec, who died in 1109, a Benedictine whose proof for the existence of God remains debated to this day. The scholastics taught the trivium, grammar, rhetoric, logic, and the quadrivium. Geometry, astronomy, music, and arithmetic. And they did so as preparation for the study of the Bible. We see here in this striking image a representation of those seven liberal arts. Here at the center, philosophy. Here, below Socrates and Plato. And the seven liberal arts surrounding, representing here, the unity of knowledge. Schools soon emerged that where for the study of theology. At Lyons and Reims in France, and the Papacy under Gregory IX supported these cathedral schools. Universities evolved from this cathedral schools. First of all, in Bolonia, here in a representation of a master instructing the students, even with one of those students fast asleep. Sometimes things don't change very much. Soon, Paris and Oxford became preeminent in theology. While Bolonia was famous for the study of law. The universities owed much in their structure to the guilds of medieval culture. They were hierarchical, yet bound together for the common good. In the universities, students began at an early age, what we would call teenagers. They would proceed to a bachelor which involved knowledge of the liberal arts. Masters who became bachelors of the Bible and bachelors of theology, meant that they had studied the sentences of Peter Lombard. And a person, who taking this degree, would do so after having lectured on the sentences for a year. The gathering of masters and students formed the universities around 1200. [COUGH] Latin was the language of instruction. And students came to these universities from across Europe. Two models emerged. The northern one, after the example of Paris, where the university was run by the masters, while in Italian lands, it was the senior students who played a lead role. The University of Paris was divided into four faculties arts, medicine, canon law, and theology. Arts was dominant in terms of numbers. The university was further divided into nations, and each nation had a patron saint and was headed by a dean. It was the masters of the university who made up those nations. The arts faculty had a rector, while the others had a dean. And Paris, with this structure, became the model for the northern universities. As mentioned, scholasticism was the dominant form of education. But it did not originate in the West. It came from Islamic culture. So what was scholasticism? That is an extraordinary complex subject but we can say a few things. It consisted of reading of authoritative text authorities in the university. And the use of Aristotelian logic to harmonize those conflicting things in the authorities to make them make analytical fence. So, to draw together, through the use of logic, the world of knowledge. What seemed to be contradictory could be resolved. So, instead of its reputation for being nitpicking or hair splitting, it was dedicated to the creation of a unified body of knowledge. And Aristotelian logic was seen as the essential tool. In particular, there was this concentration on logic in the study of Aristotle. And a question would be posed by a master which involved a contradiction. The response was a disputation, a disputatio in which students used their tools of education to address and resolve the problem. To demonstrate that contradictions and conflicts in the authorities were resolvable. Reading, question, disputation, this was the format of scholastic learning. We've mentioned already the name Peter Lombard, and the major text that emerged in the universities were the sentences of Peter Lombard. And they demonstrate very clearly the spirit of this age. The sentences were compilations of authorities brought together, and the whole of theology. They were hugely popular in the universities. Particularly among the mendicant orders, the Dominicans and Franciscans. And by the mid-13th century, large numbers on commentaries on Lombard sentences started to emerge. These commentaries and lectures on the sentences became a sort of life blood of university theological education. Lombard's sentences, in our terms, was the textbook of medieval theology. Until in the 13th century, with the emergence of the great Summa, not least of which, of course, was that of Thomas Aquinas. Theologians and canon lawyers commented on the vast body of authoritative material in the medieval world. Several compilations were attempted. The most important, as we've touched on before, was the work of Gratian, who like the sentences of Peter Lombard, drew together material in his Decretum, which became the standard textbook of Canon Law in the universities. The scholastic learning that emerged in the university culture was one in which the search of truth was pursued through a new form of learning. Scholasticism would go through many different forms through the Middle Age. And there would be many debates between rival theologians. However, its centrality to the intellectual, spiritual, and theological life of medieval church and of the medieval university can not be doubted.