[MUSIC] Confucian philosophy is often described as having a conservative orientation. We ended with this observation in our last discussion. This is not inaccurate, but it can be easily misunderstood. Confucian conservatism should be understood only in the technical sense that Confucius saw something of value in the ideals and traditions established in the past, which he believed should be conserved. In this sense, a conservative philosophy should not be seen as the opposite of, say, liberalism. In some ways, one could, in fact, argue that Confucius was very liberal. For example, he extended the opportunity of education of those not among the ruling elite, which in those days was a very unconservative thing to do. We should remember the historical context in which Confucianism arose. At a time when social and political order was breaking down, and the decline was evidently on an accelerated trajectory. In this context, Confucius could be regarded as a serious reformer. We should also remind ourselves that the traditions to be conserved were remembered in their best light, or put differently, they were remembered as ideals. Or more precisely, they were interpreted in the light of the present, from the perspective of Confucius, in the face of increasing chaos and suffering. This is not to say that Confucius simply used the authority of the past to bolster his own ideas. This would be far too much of an uncharitable interpretation of Confucius, seems to me. There's no reason not to believe that Confucius sought to make sense of the tradition before him, so as to put forward a program of reform and a vision of order and harmony, just as we as we are trying to make sense of his teachings today. What is new in the cultural sphere is never totally divorced from what is old. But history and tradition always requires interpretation. One could even say that in interpretation there is a fusion of horizons, integrating the past and the present, and beyond the present, offering a vision of the future. This is how I think Confucian philosophy should be approached. Conserving the wisdom of the past, in this sense, does not stand opposed to innovation, but rather provides an anchor for new ideas and cultural change. In this context, we begin to understand the intellectual world of Confucius. How he saw something of value in the Li or habituated ritual conduct, that traces its evolution to antiquity. How he saw Li as the proper channel through which compassion and benevolence, the humane feelings that stemmed directly from the heart or Ren, how that can be properly expressed, and how every individual act of ethical significance requires the critical deliberation of rightness and fittingness calibrated to achieve the optimal ethical outcome. The sense of rightness, as what is appropriate, does not represent a kind of situational ethics, nor does it condone ethical compromises. Integrity is embedded in the very interplay between Ren and Li. Rather, it is about attending to the dynamics of complex relationships to make sure that the ethical course is not the derailed by dogmatism or negligence. The ideal Junzi, then, should not be regarded as someone who is inflexible or someone who simply follows rules without thinking. Rather, the Junzi is someone who is able to make difficult moral decisions. Someone who is able to weigh judiciously the timeliness and rightness of action, so as to overcome the forces of disorder. In summary, the concepts of Ren, Yi and Li, it seems to me, can provide a general entry into the philosophical world of Confucius. They do not undermine the importance of other virtues, but allow us to present a more coherent account of the ideal Junzi, who stands at the very heart of the Confucian way. Now let me make two further points. First, in Confucian philosophy, we see a comprehensive extension of ethics into everyday life. Second, Confucian philosophy seeks to achieve a balance between what maybe called a person-oriented ethical consciousness and a process-oriented ethics. In one sense, the Confucian Dao is about the big ethical picture. How universal harmony can be achieved through ethical self-cultivation. In another sense, Confucian philosophy is also about seeing through the ethical complexity of little things, which, in a world view marked by intricate and interconnected sets of relationships, are of particular importance. Some readers of the Analects say that there is nothing profound in Confucian teachings. They are all about everyday stuff, mundane things like being filial, like being respectful. So what's the big deal about Confucian philosophy? From the Confucian point of view, at least as it is reflected in the Analects, the concrete ethical world is all about little things. Precisely in being filial and in being respectful, a person finds his or her moral compass. The connectedness of relationships means that the ethical purpose and direction developed from little things can be extend from oneself to one's family, society and the world at large. The point I would like to highlight here is that Confucian philosophy involves an extension of ethics into everyday life, into even the smallest action and gestures. Now, let's take a mundane example. Consider the relationship between husband and wife. Some would argue that that Li should not apply here. Because the love between a husband and wife is entirely natural and should not be bound by the rules of propriety. Is that true in your view? If love does not require Li, how should it be expressed? The issue is that love is a relational concept, as opposed to a self-regarding concept. My love for my wife also needs to take into account her feelings, and in a social setting, the wider sensibilities of the community as well. Love needs to be expressed in words, in gestures and in action, which are social in nature. They are shared. As such, it would be difficult not to consider the ways in which such love should be expressed. And once we are on that reflective course, the question of appropriateness and rightness actually already comes into the picture. The precise expression or form of exchange would, of course, vary over both time and culture. But it would seem odd, it would seem very odd indeed if Li is not in the picture at all. Ethics in the Confucian sense concerns everything one does. It is a way of life. It is not just about big moral dilemmas like killing an innocent person in order to save thousands. It is not really just about abortion or euthanasia. It also about how you treat your parents and friends, how you study, and how you conduct the everyday business of life. Choosing a present for your spouse, from this perspective, actually, can be an ethical task. Because it expresses your feelings and understanding of what is right, assuming that genuine affection is already present. Insignificant, you think? Perhaps, but in little things, in the most mundane of human interaction, one can actually understand a great deal about the human condition, about relationships. And in executing small actions rightly, one grows to become stronger as an ethical agent. When ethical deliberation pervades every single thought and action, the Confucian Dao will have been established. For this to happen, of course, the roots must be strong, which is why Confucius emphasizes individual self-cultivation. Consider another seemingly trivial example. Suppose you're the boss and one of your subordinates committed an error. Would you fire him? That would be one option. To overlook the case and forgive that person would be another option. Between these two extremes, there are other possibilities, such as to point out his error or her error and serve him a warning. What is the right thing to do? The point to note here is that Li alone cannot determine the proper cause of action. I could fire the person and do it in accordance with propriety. I could fire the person politely and give him full respect, but that does not make the decision right or appropriate. On the one hand, it should be clear that Confucian philosophy does not offer a kind of "how-to" manual that provides particular solutions to particular problems. On the other hand, although circumstances vary, one also cannot make ethical judgements arbitrarily. Should we rely on the wisdom of the sage in making sound ethical judgments? Or should we rely on objective processes that take away any personal involvement? Process-oriented ethical system precisely seeks to eliminate any personal biases. The potential risk is that if we stick to impersonal processes alone in making ethical judgements, we may fail to appreciate the complexities and nuances of individual circumstances. That is, you don't really care whether there are extenuating circumstances. If you cheat, for example, you should be punished regardless of mitigating circumstances. A person-oriented ethical paradigm, in comparison, seems to offer a holistic approach in making sound judgements. Then there is the potential danger of subjective distortion. The Confucian position is that there should be a fine balance between the two, between a person-oriented and a process-oriented ethical model. Li is very much process-oriented. Ren, on the other hand, is person-centric, as the feeling of humaneness stems from the individual. In the Confucian view, relying on either one alone would render the ethical picture incomplete. The important point is that subjective distortion needs to be and can be eliminated through constant ethical self-cultivation. Any ethical decision must be motivated by Ren. Again, not in the sense of wanting to be nice to everyone, or being liked by everyone, but genuine concern for the well being of others. Motivated by Ren, mediated by critical deliberation of rightness and finding expression in proper conduct. This then defines the Confucian Dao of benevolence and rightness. The recommended path to order and harmony. For both little things and big issues, the same Dao applies, but life is about little mundane things. And it is here that ethical attention is most needed. In observing filial piety, you remember, Confucius said, maintaining a proper expression, especially facial expression, is difficult. This may sound strange, but if we take ethics to be about everyday life and action, we see how important little things are, and how everything we do is connected and add up to a larger ethical picture.
