Is Confucianism synonymous with Chinese culture? While it may be an overstatement to equate the two, there is little doubt that Confucianism pervades every level of Chinese culture and society. To be sure, other traditions such as Daoism and Buddhism have also left an indelible mark; nevertheless, Confucianism remains central to the shaping of the Chinese imagination. The influence of Confucianism extends beyond China to East Asia and through migration and cultural diffusion, other parts of the world. Confucianism traces its origins to the teachings of Confucius. What makes Confucius so special and what did he teach? This course will explore some of the key concepts in Confucian philosophy. Much of the discussion will centre on the Analects of Confucius, the foundational text of Confucian wisdom, although attention will also be given to the subsequent unfolding of the Confucian tradition. We will attempt to situate Confucian philosophy in its own context and to bring out its contemporary significance. Confucianism is a living tradition. Its vitality hinges on not only its continuing relevance in Chinese society but also its contribution to meeting the global challenges confronting the world today. There are no prerequisites for this course, other than a keen interest in Chinese tradition and culture, and the willingness to engage the Analects of Confucius.
L2.14 - The Transformative Way of Ethical Engagement
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Do curso por Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Explorations in Confucian Philosophy
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Part 2B - The Vision of Confucius (cont'd)
In this same context (refer to week 2), as we continue our guided tour, as it were, of the rich intellectual landscape that is Confucianism, we examine briefly the concept of “filial piety” (xiao), the key concern with learning and education (xue), which extends far beyond academic interests, and other related concepts. In addition, I would like to raise the question as to whether there is a religious or spiritual dimension to Confucian philosophy, and if so, how does it relate to ethics and political philosophy. There is much to discuss here, and we will return to the question of the impact of the Confucian vision on Chinese culture towards the end of this course.
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Alan K. L. ChanToh Puan Mahani Idris Daim Chair Professor of Humanities & Dean
College of Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences
Today, we will focus on two passages in the Analects. This is the first.
A certain ruler asked Confucius about the way of governing and Confucius replied,
"The ruler be a ruler; the subject,
a subject; the father,
a father; the son, a son."
The second passage is Confucius responds to one of his disciples
about what he would consider to be the most important task in governing.
And this is what he says,
quite emphatically, in fact,
"It will have to be rectifying names!"
When pressed further, Confucius explains that in the context of governing,
"If names are not used properly,
what we say will not be in order.
And if what we say is not in order,
what we do will not have the desired results,
and if such results are lacking,
we will not be able to establish the institution of the rites and music.
Without the rights and music, furthermore,
laws and punishment will not achieve their target.
And with laws and punishment not achieving their target,
the people will not know what they ought to do."
Now, note the sequential argumentation
here which is actually quite common in early Chinese Philosophy.
The concept of rectifying names,
or rectification of names,
Zheng Ming, plays a very important role in Confucian philosophy.
The argument here is basically that a name, title,
or designation such as "lord," "father," "minister,"
or "son" carries with it certain obligations and responsibilities
that ought to be fulfilled before a person can truly be regarded by that name.
For example, having children is obviously a basic condition of being a father.
But in principle, being a father,
to warrant that name,
also comes with other responsibilities.
Providing for his family would be one.
Circumstances may perhaps prevent a person from accomplishing this,
but that does not detract from the principle.
Beyond providing for the family,
from the Confucian perspective,
there are even more important responsibilities.
As you will no doubt be able to tell by now,
these are predominantly ethical responsibilities and ultimately refer
back to the kind of role model that the father is able to set for the children,
and the kind of guidance that he is able to provide in ethical self-cultivation.
Ideally, when the responsibilities entailed by each name are fulfilled.
When these responsibilities are fulfilled,
the rites and music will flourish which is essentially
a shorthand description of a society marked by compassion and propriety.
And in such a society that people will know exactly what they ought to do.
The point we need to emphasize here,
is that names do not stand alone.
Rather, they derive their meaning from
the web of relationships in which they are embedded.
Self-identity, one might say,
is understood relationally in the Confucian context.
In many college philosophy courses,
students are often asked to reflect on the question, who am I?
Now if you answer,
I am my father's son or daughter,
you are seeing yourself in terms of a basic relationship.
In traditional Confucian literature,
five such basic relationships are often
enumerated extending from the family to society at large.
These are the relationships between father and son,
that between ruler and minister,
between husband and wife,
between elder and younger brothers, and between friends.
In a relational setting,
each member bears certain roles, obligations, and responsibilities.
Family and social relationships entails certain bonds,
which can be nurturing and sustaining.
But they can also be stifling,
and in some cases, even oppressive.
Anything that binds will create a bond.
And it is certainly possible that some bonds may end up degenerating into,
shall we say, bondage.
In the face of this potentially dark scenario,
one might redefine one's sense of self and identity apart from any relationship,
or one could seek to transform the relationships
themselves by injecting an ethical agent into them.
It is the latter option that Confucius wanted us to consider.
Kinship ties and social relationships are
realities that simply cannot be wished away or eradicated,
unless, I suppose, one opts for a life of solitude as a recluse.
The life of a hermit is pretty much ruled out in
Confucianism as we have actually noted already in the previous lecture.
And this is because every individual is seen to have a role to play in creating and
sustaining a harmonious society that everyone can make a meaningful difference.
The Confucian proposition is therefore about infusing
all relationships with a strong ethical current so that it pervades the entire network,
and defines and regulates all relations and affairs.
The concept of rectifying names is set in that context.
When we discussed filial piety in Confucian philosophy,
we noted that it is sometimes misinterpreted as unconditional obedience.
The parent-child relationship is binding,
but the concept of filial care and concern serves to
ensure that the relationship remains ethically strong and healthy.
What parents and children ought to do may be understood as a set of duties.
However, we must be careful not to take the concept
of duty as something that is entirely rigid,
as something that is imposed from outside.
Filial duties in the Confucian sense are not defined in the abstract.
Rather they are defined by a deep sense that the parent-child relationship is bound
by filial care and affection that stems directly from the heart of an individual,
that kinship ties need to be guided and shaped by habitual action of proper conduct
and that there is no easy way to maintain
familial relationships because ethical deliberation.
And decision making is necessary every step of the way and some of these certainly,
certainly could be difficult and painful.
Still, this is the only way to ensure that human relationships can
blossom into social harmony that promises to bring happiness to all.
At least, this is what underpins the Confucian argument that Ren (Humanity),
Li (Proper Conduct) and Yi (Rightness),
together provide the necessary ingredients for
a finely balanced and ethically tasteful social soup, so to speak.
I use the soup metaphor because the concept of harmony in Chinese literature is
often explained by means of a culinary metaphor besides musical harmony.
For a relational ethics to work,
for the ideal harmony to be realized,
a strong sense of responsibility is needed but responsibility
should not be understood merely in terms of something that a person is responsible for.
Responsibility also suggests being responsive to the feelings and needs of others.
This introduces a sense of what I would call other-directedness into ethical reflection.
If the human person is understood in
relational terms as being situated in a web of relationships,
ethically informed social harmony cannot be achieved if
human beings regard only their own feelings and interests.
There must be concern for the other if harmony is to have any meaning at all.
Now, at the level of political organization the relationships that are
seen to bind the people together are structured hierarchically.
There is a ruler,
there are the ministers and officers and then there are the common people.
In the context of Confucius' China,
there was really no alternative to the patriarchal, monarchical system.
Today's context of course is very different and we will
have to consider Confucian philosophy in the contemporary world later.
But in the context of early China,
let's focus on that for the moment.
Political relationships for the educated elite
were framed by the ruler-subject relationship.
As in the case of family relations,
the Confucian argument is that political structure and relationships must be
informed and driven by a strong sense of ethical responsibility and purpose.
The concept of Ren, Humanity,
translates into an emphasis on benevolent government.
On the part of the ruler,
there is no question that he must be concerned with the welfare
of the people as opposed to selfish interest or personal gain.
The sense of benevolence,
is shaped by Li (Proper Conduct) and careful deliberation is exercised to ensure
that the right and just policies are instituted and
that they are implemented appropriately and fittingly.
Here you can see clearly how ethics and politics are
merged into one in Confucian philosophy.
Now, recall the statement from the Analects that we have already looked at earlier.
Governing (Zheng) means to be correct (Zheng) that the word for governing
and being correct have the same pronunciation in
Chinese certainly adds to the force of the suggestion.
In response, those who serve the state would do their utmost that is with Zhong.
Remember the concept we looked at in the last video
that is to say with constant devotion and
conscientiousness to ensure that benevolence
reaches the people and that rightness prevails.
And for the common people,
there is a responsibility to support this grand project.
Social mobility is in principle assured by
virtue of learning and through self-cultivation,
in principle, anyone can become a true Junzi, gentleman.
But what if, what if the ruler is really bad.
Confucius suggests at one point that, "When the way prevails in the world, be visible;
if not, stay hidden."
Now, be visible seems to suggest that we strive for positions of
authority and responsibility in public service but what does stay hidden mean?
The best way to understand this, I suppose,
is perhaps to reference Confucius' own life.
Stay hidden does not necessarily mean adopting the life of a recluse but rather
retire from politics if the government is entirely or systemically corrupt.
In Confucius case, he chose teaching to further the way of Humanity and Rightness.
In the Analects, there is a record of a meeting between a local official and
Confucius which seems to have taken place after Confucius had lost his official post.
After that meeting, the official said to Confucius disciples who were also present,
"Why worry about your master's loss of office? "
he said, "The way has been lost for a long time and heaven
intends for the master to be a wooden bell clapper."
I just can't resist doing this.
That is to say,
to be the voice of Humanity and Rightness in the world,
to spread the way through his teaching.
In another instance, a hermit suggests that
the world is being engulfed by disorder and chaos,
and that it is entirely futile to think that one person,
a single individual can change it.
As such, it would be better for one to pursue the life of a recluse,
to live with nature away from society.
Having heard that Confucius remarks,
"We cannot just live with birds and animals now, can we?
If we do not engage society who should we associate with?
If the way had been realised in the world then
indeed there would be no need for me to change anything."
This response I think it exemplifies nicely the Confucian way of engagement.
Perhaps the logic could be extended to
replacing a thoroughly corrupt ruler with a benevolent one.
This has not worked out in Confucius,
although it does appear in later Confucian interpretation.
Judging from the Analects alone,
one could say that there is a kind of conservatism that runs through Confucius' teachings.
We'll talk more about this the next time we meet.
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