[MUSIC] Hi, welcome back. I'm glad that you're still with us. I was kind of worried that some of you might find the historical introduction a bit too heavy. But the venture into early Chinese history is really absolutely essential because ideas simply do not grow out of a vacuum, and Confucianism, in particular, has a strong historical self-consciousness, looking to history for inspiration, as well as support for its arguments. The five classics introduced in the last few lectures allow us to see how the past was imagined and reconstructed through largely Confucian eyes. To understand Confucian philosophy, we will need to be able to enter imaginatively into Confucius' space, and see the kinds of problems that he was trying to resolve. Now, the Zhou dynasty, as you know, was established on a new mandate that is seen to have come from Heaven, or Tian, the supreme deity. The reason for the new mandate is explained largely in ethical terms, not because the Zhou was more powerful, but because they were virtuous, and the last kings of the Shang Dynasty were not. The Zhou feudal system worked quite well for several hundred years, but it eventually declined. In 771 B.C.E, it suffered a major military defeat and was forced to vacate its capital, which was in present day Xi'an. The central government, the Zhou government, was then re-established in what is present day Luoyang, over 300 kilometers east of Xi'an. For this reason, the chronology of the Zhou Dynasty is usually divided into the Western Zhou and the Eastern Zhou periods. The Spring and Autumn Period, so-called, you remember, because of the Classic Spring and Autumn Annals. This period describes roughly the first half of the Eastern Zhou period between eighth and fifth century B.C.E. Confucius witnessed the decline of the Zhou empire during the Spring and Autumn Period. It was a time when the various feudal lords began to raise their ambition, shall we say. Don't forget, they owed their allegiance to the Zhou government before, but now, they begin to assert their independent power. The politics of these individual states became increasingly treacherous, and interstate relations, far more difficult and complex than before. Interstate warfare increased in both intensity and frequency. To give you an idea of the scale we're talking about, according to one early historical account, during those 240 or so years, 52 states were invaded, and 36 cases of regicide were recorded. So it was a pretty chaotic time, if you like. The Spring and Autumn Period was followed by the Warring States Period in Chinese history. The name alone should give you an idea of what was happening at that time. Now, the question is, what would you do if you were well-educated, and aspire to see peace and order re-established in the land? You have already seen how Confucius traveled from state to state in order to find a ruler who would put his ideas into practice. You also know that Confucius eventually retired to a life of teaching. Let's turn to the Analects now to explore what he taught. Of course, interpretation is never straightforward. And there are different interpretations of Confucian philosophy. What I would like to do is to share with you one particular reading of the Analects, focusing on several key concepts, but I would encourage you to come up with your own reading. That's important. Discuss it with your peers in our discussion forum. There is absolutely no doubt in my mind that Confucius was an engaged intellectual. He was disheartened by the deteriorating conditions of the society in his day. And he wanted to make a positive difference. This does not mean that Confucius' teaching is relevant only to his time. You will see how it holds universal and contemporary significance as the story unfolds, but Spring and Autumn China was where and when it all started. To reverse the course of sociopolitical decline, Confucius proposed that we uphold and further develop the Dao, The Way. The concept of "Tao," often spelled with a T instead of a D, but it should be pronounced Dao, and not Tao, okay? The concept of "Dao" is common to early Chinese philosophy as a whole. One could say that thinkers of all persuasions in early China all proposed a Dao, claiming it to be the best way to restore order and harmony. Obviously, it is not a concept invented by Confucius, but he used it in a particular way to capture the overall philosophical program that he was trying to advocate. Now, the word "Dao," itself, was probably used originally as a verb, meaning to go or lead towards something or somewhere, heading in a certain direction. The verbal usage may also be extended to mean speaking. As a noun, "Dao" means basically a pathway, a path, a way, and it is usually so translated. Consider these statements from the Analects. Here, we find Confucius saying, "Hearing the Way in the morning, one would be content, even if one were to die that evening." What does that mean? Now, the idea of hearing, first of all, is very rich as it involves listening, asking questions, and understanding, and it entails putting what one has understood into practice. This saying does not quite tell us what the Dao, or Way, is to Confucius, but it does reflect the importance of the concept in Confucius' thinking. In fact, the word "Dao" is used some 100 times in the Analects. Sometimes it's actually useful to see how frequently a concept is used in a text to get a sense of its place or importance. "If the Way prevailed or were realized in the world," Confucius is also reported to have said, "I would not then have to toil in changing or reforming it." It's important to note that these sayings do not imply passive reception. The Analects state quite clearly, human beings are capable of broadening the Way. It is not the other way around. So if there is no question about the significance of the concept, what is the Dao, or Way, of Confucius? A disciple of Confucius has this to say in the Analects, "The gentleman cultivates the roots. When the roots are established, the Dao will grow." I note three points here. One, the Dao will grow. That is, it is not a static concept. Two, certain roots, or basic fundamentals, must be cultivated. And, three, someone described as the gentleman is the person who will make the Dao grow and flourish. This will be the focus of our next lecture.
